Feel free to read my proposal or the abridged introduction below.

I create stories in two worlds: in theatre as a director, stage manager, stage combat performer, actor, and writer, and in games as a creator of tabletop role-playing games (TTRPGs) and gamified STEM and English language instruction. Due to my passion for gaming, I am in the process of transitioning my career into game design. As part of this pivot, I am learning everything I can about how stories function within games with the goal of becoming a game writer and narrative designer. Luckily, I am working on my PhD dissertation at NYU in Educational Theatre, which enables me to do a deep dive into this most fascinating of subjects!

Research Questions

Main Question:

How do TTRPGs use collective improvisation and flow to create the feeling of ‘living in a story’?

This inquiry is equal parts about technique and subjective experience, exploring how meaningful experiences can be designed and felt in tabletop role-playing games. I posit that it is through the use of improvisation and features of flow experiences that allow moments of ‘lived-story’ experience to emerge, while also wishing to explore how players make meaning of those experiences based on their prior experience with improvisation and flow.

Sub-Questions:

1.       What phenomena exactly are people describing creatively, imaginatively, psychologically, and socially when they use this phrase? How does this relate to theories of flow?

2.       How does training in improvisation influence the collaborative creation of such ‘story-lived’ game moments?

3.       To what extent does performing for an audience, live or recorded, contribute to this experience? What about audience interaction?

Overview: The Lived-Story Experience as a State of Flow

“How do we get the feeling of living in a story?”

Brennan Lee Mulligan, Adventuring Academy, Season 4, Ep. 3 (2022)

For this project, I will focus on explicating a phenomenon I will refer to as the ‘lived-story experience’ in attribution to professional tabletop role-playing game (TTRPG) narrative designer and improvisor Brennan Lee Mulligan’s “feeling of living in a story”. This is a state which I believe player-performers, and perhaps their audience, can experience when their performance aligns ideally with the principles of narrative game design through the skillful use of collaborative improvisation.

Some performers of TTRPGs have identified this lived-story experience as a type of flow, as demonstrated through the following exchange that occurred between the cast of Worlds Beyond Number while discussing how they get into character by using elements of narrative design, such as worldbuilding, as anchors for improvisation (2023).

Brennan Lee Mulligan:     There's a moment where you're on stage, or where you're at the table, and the little you inside of your head that is managing your day-to-day activities and sort of logging them in the story of you—the you that watches yourself from within—there's a moment where you're on stage, or at the table, or any other kind of performance, where that thing melts. Where the sugar stirs into the tea and dissolves, and all of a sudden you are existing in a state of being, released from the burden of identity and ego. And, boy, what a tasty little dessert that is. Yum, yum!

Aabria Iyengar:               A fact. Just my last note on that is—because I've had people ask how I went from sports to this, and it's because it's the same thing. Sports is high level performance, and that same sort of like—they call The Zone more often than not in sports—but it's that same ego death.

Erika Ishii:                       Flow.

Aabria Iyengar:               Yeah, and Flow. Yeah. So we all just out here seeking flow, baby!

Erika Ishii:                       I. Crave. That.

Lou Wilson:                     We all seek Flow.

According to these performers, the feeling of living in a story is characterized as a state of flow that occurs when they become so linked with a character’s reality in a narrative that the anchor to their own identity loosens (“ego death”) and the story becomes real to them in that moment, heightening and interacting with related phenomena like immersion, engagement, investment, and imagination. Experiencing flow has been hypothesized to be unique to human consciousness, or even a defining trait of consciousness, and has been sought out by us since the beginning of time for entertainment, social change, therapeutic benefit, connection, or simply as validation of being alive  (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008; Groos & Baldwin, 2018; Huizinga, 1998; Nachmanovitch, 1990). However, some research on immersion problematizes the assumption that what the players are experiencing could properly be called flow. They argue that total absorption in an activity is required for flow, but theatre and games both require being doubly aware of being in a performance or game and its contrast with the real world, even developing social and cultural ways to negotiate those liminal crossings. The role of the audience being simultaneously aware that they are watching a performance while suspending disbelief to join performers in the “showing doing” of the narrative is another consideration (Schechner, 2020). Another consideration is that of the construct of metaxis, introduced by Plato but applied by Augusto Boal in Games for Actors and Non-Actors (1992) to indicate the liminal space between fiction and reality that Li Sumpter calls, “the site of soul-making, and the multidimensionality of immersive, transmedia storytelling” (2023). Is this belonging to two worlds simultaneously and being aware of that duality the key to experiences of flow, or does it mean that what the cast of Worlds Beyond Number are experiencing cannot be flow by its very definition? And if it is not flow, then why are they compelled to refer to their experience by that term?

Purpose and Methodology

Through this study, in the broadest sense I hope to demonstrate what live theatrical practices and game design can offer each other by producing a theoretical framework of how ludo-narratology, improvisation, and flow intersect at the site of highly skilled TTRPG play. I will do semi-structured interviews with 10-20 professional TTRPG players in two sessions of an hour each to get an in-depth description of their experiences of flow in narrative game improvisation. Ideally, I may also be permitted to observe the performers in a game between the interview sessions so that I can ask specific questions about their subjective experience of moments in their performance.

Purpose: A Quadratic Theoretical Framework and Interdisciplinary Model

I see three levels of depth and complexity in a narrative’s ability to elicit flow based on the format and type of immersion: receptive, performative, and ludic (play/game). On the first level, we have hearing a tale, reading a novel, or viewing a film, where immersion is created by relating to a static narrative happening to someone else. When one is performing as a character on stage in a play with a pre-determined script, the dual-logic of performance awakens, where we are both ‘in’ the story and aware that we are participating in bringing the story to life. Additionally, this is the first level where interaction with an audience is part of the experience. The third level of depth occurs in games played for an audience, in which I would consider improvisation as a game, because games break away from the predictable narrative of the scripted performance to create an emergent narrative through the exploration of the multitude of variations found within the rules and structures of the game’s design. ‘Emergent narrative’ is a term in game and interactive storytelling studies that describes stories that emerge from player choices within the game’s design that are not directly predictable by the game designers, and as such, is the focus of how narrative satisfaction and player agency interact. This is why I believe that games that employ collective improvisation performed for an audience, even more so if the goal of both the game’s design and players’ intentions are focused on narrative, are the most likely format to produce the potential to experience flow and lived-story experiences. Fortunately for my project, this is exactly what many groups of professional TTRPG players and designers are explicitly seeking, especially those in the gaming communities connected to the creative vision of Brennan Lee Mulligan.

A case study of professional TTRPG performers offers an opportunity to capture the forces at work that can inform storytellers, game designers, and theatre educators how to stimulate a lived-story experience. I will be focusing on the actual play show Mulligan created for Dropout.tv, Dimension 20, and his role-playing experts podcast Adventuring Academy, as well as his actual play podcast Worlds Beyond Number, with Aabria Iyengar, Erika Ishii, and Lou Wilson, and Dimension 20-affiliated podcast NADDPOD, featuring Brian Murphy, Emily Axford, Jake Hurwitz, and Caldwell Tanner. As these expert practitioners have specifically commented on striving to create story-lived experiences in their games, examining their play techniques and the game’s narrative design as a case study will illuminate the factors they feel have contributed most to flow in their games. Part of this analysis is discovering what definition of flow may be synonymous with ‘lived-story experiences’, or indeed how theorists in game design may have eliminated flow as an applicable construct for understanding player experience. My case study design will draw upon the methodologies of heuristics, phenomenology, and Practice as Research (PaR) to explore the depth of lived experience of this phenomenon.

To understand precisely what is happening in those story-lived flow moments, a quadratic theoretical framework is needed from the fields of narratology and ludology, explicated through the lenses of improvisation and flow. Tabletop and live-action role-playing games (LARPs) are prime examples of how narratology, ludology, improvisation, and flow intersect in performance. Players take on roles within a structured narrative framework (narratology), interact with game mechanics and rules (ludology), and engage in improvisational storytelling to create dynamic and collaborative narratives that, ideally, support a state of flow. They are a theatrical, collaborative, immersive, and improvised storytelling medium focused on the experiences of actors who role-play and narrate their experiences in interaction with a world, plot, and non-player characters combined with game mechanics and rules refereed by the game master (GM). […] These games have evolved over the decades to centralize story and increasing levels of immersive player agency, a role in entertainment previously held by live theatre—not only for the audience, but for the actors. The most satisfying gameplay moments come when the mechanics and the roleplay seamlessly reinforce each other; when the ‘dice tell a story’, the combat abilities come from character development, and the authorial agency is passed with trust between the players and the game master. This collaborative atmosphere comes from an agreement between the players and game master during the game sessions, but it is also an artform in and of itself, requiring development and practice of a unique combination of skills. […]

Statement of Problem/Deficiencies: Improvisation and Flow in Narrative Design Practices

By examining the intersections between theatre and gaming using narrative design theory, researchers can gain insights into the dynamics of storytelling experiences across different forms of interactive and performative media. However, narrative design may not fully account for the role of improvisation in shaping emergent narratives and player experiences in dynamic, player-driven environments such as tabletop role-playing games. Improvisation introduces a level of spontaneity, unpredictability, and player agency that can significantly influence the narrative trajectory and thematic content of gameplay. In TTRPGs, players collaboratively co-create stories through improvisational storytelling, responding to each other's actions, decisions, and contributions in real-time. The improvisational process at the table can lead to the emergence of complex, dynamic narratives that may diverge from or subvert the intended narrative structures or thematic motifs embedded within the game system (Sidhu & Carter, 2023).

There are extensive benefits for game design to consider research from theatre on improvisation, even if that improv happens with a single ‘performer’ in their living room interacting with their Xbox. “Despite being undertheorized in writing about digital games in general, improvisation does play a crucial role in video games that invite players to create emergent variations in actions, tactics, strategies, goals, and play styles” (Jagoda, 2020, p. 253). As it stands, ludo-narrative theory often focuses on analyzing the interplay between pre-defined game mechanics and narrative elements, assuming a more deterministic relationship between gameplay and narrative outcomes. This perspective may overlook the creative agency and interpretive flexibility afforded to players in improvisational game environments, as well as the ways in which improvisation can shape and redefine the ludic and narrative dimensions of gameplay. […]

Therefore, a deficiency in narrative design theory, perhaps due mostly to traditional studio game development workflow models, may lie in its tendency to underemphasize the dynamic, iterative nature of player-driven storytelling and the ways in which improvisation intersects with, complements, or challenges established frameworks. Addressing this deficiency would require expanding narrative design theory to incorporate a more nuanced understanding of improvisational practices and their implications for the relationship between gameplay and narrative in interactive storytelling contexts.

My hypothesis is that the incorporation of improvisational techniques during the narrative design process of games have the potential to allow for more reliable experiences of flow and living in the story. In addition to a variety of theories about improvisation and narrative improv in particular, I will be drawing extensively upon the long-form model taught by the Upright Citizen’s Brigade (UCB), as many of the Dimension 20 and Adventuring Academy players have spoken in interviews about how that training lent itself directly to creating satisfying stories and moments in the game. I am also taking courses at UCB Los Angeles taught by a Dimension 20 cast member and, as of this writing, am in the fourth course of five with him. Additionally, I am currently taking a masterclass in narrative design from professor Susan Connor at the University of Texas, Austin, through her company The Narrative Department.

Flow, as coined by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, is a psychological state of optimal experience characterized by intense focus, deep immersion, and optimal performance in an activity (2008). I posit that flow is at least a key component in the lived-story experience, if not the feeling itself, and can be used to shed light on the psychological and social mechanisms of the experience. As discussed in the literature review, semi-structured improvisation is one of the creative forms that has been studied most closely in terms of flow, as it has the potential to involve each of the features outlined in Csikszentmihalyi’s model: clear goals, immediate feedback, balance between challenge and skill, merged action and awareness, concentration on the present, no worry of failure, self-consciousness disappearing, distorted sense of time, and the activity becoming an end in itself (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). Analyzing ludo-narrative theory through the lens of flow enables a closer look at how these features can either be intentionally built into the design of a game or emerge through gameplay.

Additionally, a potential deficiency in ludo-narrative theory in terms of flow lies in it primarily focusing on analyzing the relationship between game mechanics, narrative structure, and player experiences within a game. While it acknowledges the importance of player engagement and immersion, it may not sufficiently address the subjective psychological states that players experience during gameplay or even assert that flow is not essential to games. It’s true that flow is not essential for any activity, but the feeling of living in a story, if that is synonymous with flow, provides a memorable experience above-and-beyond the expectations of playing a game for entertainment. Flow theory emphasizes that flow experiences are highly individual and can vary based on factors such as personality, skill level, and personal preferences. Ludo-narrative theory, however, tends to treat player experiences in a more generalized manner, overlooking the diverse ways in which players may experience flow or engage with games. Capturing these individualized perspectives is why interviewing professional TTRPGs players using heuristic-phenomenological methods is important.

Another benefit comes from distinguishing between the construct I am hoping to capture, ‘lived-story experience/feeling’, and interrelated concepts like engagement, immersion, and flow (Bizzocchi, J., 2007). While narrative immersion is an important aspect of player engagement, it may not always align with the conditions necessary for flow experiences. Ludo-narrative theory often prioritizes narrative coherence and player identification with characters and storylines, which may not always coincide with the flow-inducing elements. In Hamlet on the Holodeck, Janet Murray analyzes how flow clashes with the negotiation between the real world and the fictional world (1997). Flow theory also emphasizes the importance of autonomy and control in facilitating flow experiences, allowing individuals to freely choose and pursue activities that align with their interests and abilities as like what happens at a masterfully-run TTRPG table.

Researcher Positionality and Biography

Given that positionality is a term that includes my worldview and position I adopt about a research task (Gary & Holmes, 2020), some context about my relationship with TTRPGs is appropriate. Identifying as a storyteller in a cross-discipline practice between theatre and gaming is a recent development, even though it has been a part of my life since I created skits based on games I played on my Atari and Tandy 1000. Socially, however, my relationship with gaming has been the realm of complicated and conflicting feelings, stemming primarily from my enjoyment and capabilities as a woman-perceived gamer encountering gatekeeping. Sexism in gaming culture is extensively documented and even now the harmful stereotype exists that gaming is the domain of cis white men. Having grown out of war simulation and strategy games in the ‘70s, the best-known TTRPG system, Dungeons and Dragons (D&D), had such complicated gaming mechanics that the steep learning curve was itself an obstacle for interested players, especially those who wanted to focus on story and character. In all sorts of pursuits, toxic geek culture thrives on establishing social status based on competitions of exclusive, detailed, and encyclopedic knowledge, so D&D as a system was unfortunately an ideal breeding ground for gatekeeping in the wrong hands. However, in the last ten years gaming culture has seen a mighty shift toward inclusivity. That is in significant part due to the visibility and representation efforts of shows like Dimension 20 and Adventuring Academy, which showcased the more accessible game mechanics of 2014’s D&D fifth edition (D&D 5e). In 2020, many D&D games sprang up over Zoom or virtual tabletop (VTT) systems during Covid which also created an upsurge in streaming actual play shows.

I owe my new relationship with TTRPGs to my siblings. During Covid, my brother, who is a D&D game master, took it upon himself to run games where I could do everything that someone had derided and denied before, learn the nuances of the rules in a patient and cooperative way, and really play. Gaming is surprisingly psychologically revealing, and I will always be grateful for his patience while I essentially purged and repaired beliefs and behaviors from the social to the existential. My sister convinced me to watch Dimension 20 as reparative therapy, explaining how ingenious they were at improvising compelling characters and stories, as well as being solidly good, kind, and respectful people. That led me to watch Adventuring Academy, where I learned that other marginalized players of my generation had to persevere in their love for RPGs despite gatekeeping, and that there are now many groups out there for such players.

These role models of gaming culture are why it is natural for me to choose research participants from Dimension 20 and Adventuring Academy as the focus of my study. While I could have chosen any number of the thousands of actual play TTRPG programs that exist, the Dimension 20 cultural network has been pre-vetted as having philosophies, values, and personalities in line with the goals of this study. For example, they make a point to have extensive and broad representation from people of color, women, transgender and non-binary people, queer/GLBTA+ people, and people of different abilities, native languages, and body types in the cast, as game masters, on the crew, and as characters in the stories. As a white, queer, transgender/non-binary person perceived as a woman, this representation is important to me personally as well as vital for my study to distinguish it from historical gaming culture.

Finally, having earned my master’s degree in psychology, my interpretations of some concepts will undoubtedly reflect my interest in playstyles, group dynamics, and the internal experiences of players, and is how I have previously studied the concept of flow. The reason I am so fascinated with players saying they can experience flow while playing is because I personally have never experienced flow while playing a TTRPG. In fact, because my analytical mind sprints ahead of the present I have never experienced flow in a sustained manner during any activity. My experiences of flow happen just in moments that span a few breaths, or a maximum of maybe five minutes, and only occur every few years, during physical activities like archery, bouldering, cycling, kendo, and yoga. When I was young, I had a few flow moments while acting or singing, but my self-critic always broke the spell to make sure I was ‘following the rules’. I would love to experience flow while doing a creative activity. You can see why I might want to discover how to create a gaming environment, ensemble, and narrative design that would allow flow-potential to emerge more readily. Honestly, I am not sure if doing my dissertation on improv is the best idea, given that ‘overthinking’ is the main personal obstacle to attaining a flow state! However, being able to analyze the narrative in order to guide the players is a vital aspect of being a game master, so I need to find a way to retain my potential as a spontaneous writer while not getting pulled out of feeling the moment between actors performing with me. Already, in taking improv classes I can feel the mental habits that stand in the way of flow settling down and allowing me to play more instinctually and mindfully, and it is important to mention that these instances occur more readily when the trust in the ensemble is strong. These are the mental and social skills that the Dimension 20 players possess and describe in interviews. Oscar Montoya, Dimension 20 cast member and my improv instructor at UCB, has given me this feedback and is coaching me through developing these skills. Given that painful social dynamics in the TTRPGs I played were what took me out of flow potential most readily, I am fascinated with the trust inherent to collective improvisation and whatever social dynamics and interpersonal skills make successful storytelling possible. The members of Dimension 20 and Adventuring Academy have shown that they are also invested in understanding these phenomena, which will generate valuable answers. I suppose if I have a bias toward TTRPGs is that I long to experience the kinds of games I have seen on these shows, so a lot is personally riding on my research and the experiences I gain while doing it.

You can continue reading my proposal by downloading the PDF embedded in the page.